diff --git a/perl/lib/Nix/Store.xs b/perl/lib/Nix/Store.xs
index 10a0c4067..41ecbbeb4 100644
--- a/perl/lib/Nix/Store.xs
+++ b/perl/lib/Nix/Store.xs
@@ -293,7 +293,13 @@ SV * makeFixedOutputPath(int recursive, char * algo, char * hash, char * name)
         try {
             auto h = Hash::parseAny(hash, parseHashType(algo));
             auto method = recursive ? FileIngestionMethod::Recursive : FileIngestionMethod::Flat;
-            auto path = store()->makeFixedOutputPath(method, h, name);
+            auto path = store()->makeFixedOutputPath(name, FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = method,
+                    .hash = h,
+                },
+                .references = {},
+            });
             XPUSHs(sv_2mortal(newSVpv(store()->printStorePath(path).c_str(), 0)));
         } catch (Error & e) {
             croak("%s", e.what());
diff --git a/src/libexpr/primops.cc b/src/libexpr/primops.cc
index f1bce2fb6..510f674eb 100644
--- a/src/libexpr/primops.cc
+++ b/src/libexpr/primops.cc
@@ -1293,7 +1293,13 @@ drvName, Bindings * attrs, Value & v)
         auto h = newHashAllowEmpty(*outputHash, parseHashTypeOpt(outputHashAlgo));
 
         auto method = ingestionMethod.value_or(FileIngestionMethod::Flat);
-        auto outPath = state.store->makeFixedOutputPath(method, h, drvName);
+        auto outPath = state.store->makeFixedOutputPath(drvName, FixedOutputInfo {
+            .hash = {
+                .method = method,
+                .hash = h,
+            },
+            .references = {},
+        });
         drv.env["out"] = state.store->printStorePath(outPath);
         drv.outputs.insert_or_assign("out",
             DerivationOutput::CAFixed {
@@ -2103,7 +2109,13 @@ static void addPath(
 
         std::optional<StorePath> expectedStorePath;
         if (expectedHash)
-            expectedStorePath = state.store->makeFixedOutputPath(method, *expectedHash, name);
+            expectedStorePath = state.store->makeFixedOutputPath(name, FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = method,
+                    .hash = *expectedHash,
+                },
+                .references = {},
+            });
 
         if (!expectedHash || !state.store->isValidPath(*expectedStorePath)) {
             StorePath dstPath = settings.readOnlyMode
diff --git a/src/libexpr/primops/fetchTree.cc b/src/libexpr/primops/fetchTree.cc
index 0d0e00fa5..2e150c9d0 100644
--- a/src/libexpr/primops/fetchTree.cc
+++ b/src/libexpr/primops/fetchTree.cc
@@ -243,10 +243,15 @@ static void fetch(EvalState & state, const PosIdx pos, Value * * args, Value & v
 
     // early exit if pinned and already in the store
     if (expectedHash && expectedHash->type == htSHA256) {
-        auto expectedPath =
-            unpack
-            ? state.store->makeFixedOutputPath(FileIngestionMethod::Recursive, *expectedHash, name, {})
-            : state.store->makeFixedOutputPath(FileIngestionMethod::Flat, *expectedHash, name, {});
+        auto expectedPath = state.store->makeFixedOutputPath(
+            name,
+            FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = unpack ? FileIngestionMethod::Recursive : FileIngestionMethod::Flat,
+                    .hash = *expectedHash,
+                },
+                .references = {}
+            });
 
         if (state.store->isValidPath(expectedPath)) {
             state.allowAndSetStorePathString(expectedPath, v);
diff --git a/src/libfetchers/fetchers.cc b/src/libfetchers/fetchers.cc
index c767e72e5..91db3a9eb 100644
--- a/src/libfetchers/fetchers.cc
+++ b/src/libfetchers/fetchers.cc
@@ -210,7 +210,13 @@ StorePath Input::computeStorePath(Store & store) const
     auto narHash = getNarHash();
     if (!narHash)
         throw Error("cannot compute store path for unlocked input '%s'", to_string());
-    return store.makeFixedOutputPath(FileIngestionMethod::Recursive, *narHash, getName());
+    return store.makeFixedOutputPath(getName(), FixedOutputInfo {
+        .hash = {
+            .method = FileIngestionMethod::Recursive,
+            .hash = *narHash,
+        },
+        .references = {},
+    });
 }
 
 std::string Input::getType() const
diff --git a/src/libfetchers/tarball.cc b/src/libfetchers/tarball.cc
index e9686262a..96fe5faca 100644
--- a/src/libfetchers/tarball.cc
+++ b/src/libfetchers/tarball.cc
@@ -71,15 +71,19 @@ DownloadFileResult downloadFile(
         dumpString(res.data, sink);
         auto hash = hashString(htSHA256, res.data);
         ValidPathInfo info {
-            store->makeFixedOutputPath(FileIngestionMethod::Flat, hash, name),
+            *store,
+            name,
+            FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = FileIngestionMethod::Flat,
+                    .hash = hash,
+                },
+                .references = {},
+            },
             hashString(htSHA256, sink.s),
         };
         info.narSize = sink.s.size();
-        info.ca = FixedOutputHash {
-            .method = FileIngestionMethod::Flat,
-            .hash = hash,
-        };
-        auto source = StringSource(sink.s);
+        auto source = StringSource { sink.s };
         store->addToStore(info, source, NoRepair, NoCheckSigs);
         storePath = std::move(info.path);
     }
diff --git a/src/libstore/binary-cache-store.cc b/src/libstore/binary-cache-store.cc
index 751cf8c30..fcd763a9d 100644
--- a/src/libstore/binary-cache-store.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/binary-cache-store.cc
@@ -306,11 +306,22 @@ StorePath BinaryCacheStore::addToStoreFromDump(Source & dump, std::string_view n
         unsupported("addToStoreFromDump");
     return addToStoreCommon(dump, repair, CheckSigs, [&](HashResult nar) {
         ValidPathInfo info {
-            makeFixedOutputPath(method, nar.first, name, references),
+            *this,
+            name,
+            FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = method,
+                    .hash = nar.first,
+                },
+                .references = {
+                    .others = references,
+                    // caller is not capable of creating a self-reference, because this is content-addressed without modulus
+                    .self = false,
+                },
+            },
             nar.first,
         };
         info.narSize = nar.second;
-        info.references = references;
         return info;
     })->path;
 }
@@ -414,15 +425,22 @@ StorePath BinaryCacheStore::addToStore(
     });
     return addToStoreCommon(*source, repair, CheckSigs, [&](HashResult nar) {
         ValidPathInfo info {
-            makeFixedOutputPath(method, h, name, references),
+            *this,
+            name,
+            FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = method,
+                    .hash = h,
+                },
+                .references = {
+                    .others = references,
+                    // caller is not capable of creating a self-reference, because this is content-addressed without modulus
+                    .self = false,
+                },
+            },
             nar.first,
         };
         info.narSize = nar.second;
-        info.references = references;
-        info.ca = FixedOutputHash {
-            .method = method,
-            .hash = h,
-        };
         return info;
     })->path;
 }
@@ -434,7 +452,7 @@ StorePath BinaryCacheStore::addTextToStore(
     RepairFlag repair)
 {
     auto textHash = hashString(htSHA256, s);
-    auto path = makeTextPath(name, textHash, references);
+    auto path = makeTextPath(name, TextInfo { { textHash }, references });
 
     if (!repair && isValidPath(path))
         return path;
@@ -443,10 +461,16 @@ StorePath BinaryCacheStore::addTextToStore(
     dumpString(s, sink);
     StringSource source(sink.s);
     return addToStoreCommon(source, repair, CheckSigs, [&](HashResult nar) {
-        ValidPathInfo info { path, nar.first };
+        ValidPathInfo info {
+            *this,
+            std::string { name },
+            TextInfo {
+                { .hash = textHash },
+                references,
+            },
+            nar.first,
+        };
         info.narSize = nar.second;
-        info.ca = TextHash { textHash };
-        info.references = references;
         return info;
     })->path;
 }
diff --git a/src/libstore/build/local-derivation-goal.cc b/src/libstore/build/local-derivation-goal.cc
index 58d6901d3..31fea9259 100644
--- a/src/libstore/build/local-derivation-goal.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/build/local-derivation-goal.cc
@@ -2395,27 +2395,26 @@ DrvOutputs LocalDerivationGoal::registerOutputs()
             }
         };
 
-        auto rewriteRefs = [&]() -> std::pair<bool, StorePathSet> {
+        auto rewriteRefs = [&]() -> StoreReferences {
             /* In the CA case, we need the rewritten refs to calculate the
                final path, therefore we look for a *non-rewritten
                self-reference, and use a bool rather try to solve the
                computationally intractable fixed point. */
-            std::pair<bool, StorePathSet> res {
-                false,
-                {},
+            StoreReferences res {
+                .self = false,
             };
             for (auto & r : references) {
                 auto name = r.name();
                 auto origHash = std::string { r.hashPart() };
                 if (r == *scratchPath) {
-                    res.first = true;
+                    res.self = true;
                 } else if (auto outputRewrite = get(outputRewrites, origHash)) {
                     std::string newRef = *outputRewrite;
                     newRef += '-';
                     newRef += name;
-                    res.second.insert(StorePath { newRef });
+                    res.others.insert(StorePath { newRef });
                 } else {
-                    res.second.insert(r);
+                    res.others.insert(r);
                 }
             }
             return res;
@@ -2448,18 +2447,22 @@ DrvOutputs LocalDerivationGoal::registerOutputs()
                 break;
             }
             auto got = caSink.finish().first;
-            auto refs = rewriteRefs();
-
-            auto finalPath = worker.store.makeFixedOutputPath(
-                    outputHash.method,
-                    got,
-                    outputPathName(drv->name, outputName),
-                    refs.second,
-                    refs.first);
-            if (*scratchPath != finalPath) {
+            ValidPathInfo newInfo0 {
+                worker.store,
+                outputPathName(drv->name, outputName),
+                FixedOutputInfo {
+                    .hash = {
+                        .method = outputHash.method,
+                        .hash = got,
+                    },
+                    .references = rewriteRefs(),
+                },
+                Hash::dummy,
+            };
+            if (*scratchPath != newInfo0.path) {
                 // Also rewrite the output path
                 auto source = sinkToSource([&](Sink & nextSink) {
-                    RewritingSink rsink2(oldHashPart, std::string(finalPath.hashPart()), nextSink);
+                    RewritingSink rsink2(oldHashPart, std::string(newInfo0.path.hashPart()), nextSink);
                     dumpPath(actualPath, rsink2);
                     rsink2.flush();
                 });
@@ -2470,19 +2473,8 @@ DrvOutputs LocalDerivationGoal::registerOutputs()
             }
 
             HashResult narHashAndSize = hashPath(htSHA256, actualPath);
-            ValidPathInfo newInfo0 {
-                finalPath,
-                narHashAndSize.first,
-            };
-
+            newInfo0.narHash = narHashAndSize.first;
             newInfo0.narSize = narHashAndSize.second;
-            newInfo0.ca = FixedOutputHash {
-                .method = outputHash.method,
-                .hash = got,
-            };
-            newInfo0.references = refs.second;
-            if (refs.first)
-                newInfo0.references.insert(newInfo0.path);
 
             assert(newInfo0.ca);
             return newInfo0;
@@ -2504,8 +2496,8 @@ DrvOutputs LocalDerivationGoal::registerOutputs()
                 ValidPathInfo newInfo0 { requiredFinalPath, narHashAndSize.first };
                 newInfo0.narSize = narHashAndSize.second;
                 auto refs = rewriteRefs();
-                newInfo0.references = refs.second;
-                if (refs.first)
+                newInfo0.references = std::move(refs.others);
+                if (refs.self)
                     newInfo0.references.insert(newInfo0.path);
                 return newInfo0;
             },
@@ -2519,7 +2511,7 @@ DrvOutputs LocalDerivationGoal::registerOutputs()
                 /* Check wanted hash */
                 const Hash & wanted = dof.hash.hash;
                 assert(newInfo0.ca);
-                auto got = getContentAddressHash(*newInfo0.ca);
+                auto got = newInfo0.ca->getHash();
                 if (wanted != got) {
                     /* Throw an error after registering the path as
                        valid. */
diff --git a/src/libstore/build/substitution-goal.cc b/src/libstore/build/substitution-goal.cc
index 2af105b4d..190fb455a 100644
--- a/src/libstore/build/substitution-goal.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/build/substitution-goal.cc
@@ -95,7 +95,9 @@ void PathSubstitutionGoal::tryNext()
     subs.pop_front();
 
     if (ca) {
-        subPath = sub->makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(storePath.name(), *ca);
+        subPath = sub->makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(
+            std::string { storePath.name() },
+            ContentAddressWithReferences::withoutRefs(*ca));
         if (sub->storeDir == worker.store.storeDir)
             assert(subPath == storePath);
     } else if (sub->storeDir != worker.store.storeDir) {
diff --git a/src/libstore/content-address.cc b/src/libstore/content-address.cc
index cf32ccdc4..055b216db 100644
--- a/src/libstore/content-address.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/content-address.cc
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ std::string FixedOutputHash::printMethodAlgo() const
     return makeFileIngestionPrefix(method) + printHashType(hash.type);
 }
 
-std::string makeFileIngestionPrefix(const FileIngestionMethod m)
+std::string makeFileIngestionPrefix(FileIngestionMethod m)
 {
     switch (m) {
     case FileIngestionMethod::Flat:
@@ -21,39 +21,35 @@ std::string makeFileIngestionPrefix(const FileIngestionMethod m)
     }
 }
 
-std::string makeFixedOutputCA(FileIngestionMethod method, const Hash & hash)
-{
-    return "fixed:"
-        + makeFileIngestionPrefix(method)
-        + hash.to_string(Base32, true);
-}
-
-std::string renderContentAddress(ContentAddress ca)
+std::string ContentAddress::render() const
 {
     return std::visit(overloaded {
-        [](TextHash & th) {
-            return "text:" + th.hash.to_string(Base32, true);
+        [](const TextHash & th) {
+            return "text:"
+                + th.hash.to_string(Base32, true);
         },
-        [](FixedOutputHash & fsh) {
-            return makeFixedOutputCA(fsh.method, fsh.hash);
+        [](const FixedOutputHash & fsh) {
+            return "fixed:"
+                + makeFileIngestionPrefix(fsh.method)
+                + fsh.hash.to_string(Base32, true);
         }
-    }, ca);
+    }, raw);
 }
 
-std::string renderContentAddressMethod(ContentAddressMethod cam)
+std::string ContentAddressMethod::render() const
 {
     return std::visit(overloaded {
-        [](TextHashMethod & th) {
+        [](const TextHashMethod & th) {
             return std::string{"text:"} + printHashType(htSHA256);
         },
-        [](FixedOutputHashMethod & fshm) {
+        [](const FixedOutputHashMethod & fshm) {
             return "fixed:" + makeFileIngestionPrefix(fshm.fileIngestionMethod) + printHashType(fshm.hashType);
         }
-    }, cam);
+    }, raw);
 }
 
-/*
-  Parses content address strings up to the hash.
+/**
+ * Parses content address strings up to the hash.
  */
 static ContentAddressMethod parseContentAddressMethodPrefix(std::string_view & rest)
 {
@@ -97,7 +93,7 @@ static ContentAddressMethod parseContentAddressMethodPrefix(std::string_view & r
         throw UsageError("content address prefix '%s' is unrecognized. Recogonized prefixes are 'text' or 'fixed'", prefix);
 }
 
-ContentAddress parseContentAddress(std::string_view rawCa) {
+ContentAddress ContentAddress::parse(std::string_view rawCa) {
     auto rest = rawCa;
 
     ContentAddressMethod caMethod = parseContentAddressMethodPrefix(rest);
@@ -115,10 +111,10 @@ ContentAddress parseContentAddress(std::string_view rawCa) {
                     .hash = Hash::parseNonSRIUnprefixed(rest, std::move(fohMethod.hashType)),
                 });
             },
-        }, caMethod);
+        }, caMethod.raw);
 }
 
-ContentAddressMethod parseContentAddressMethod(std::string_view caMethod)
+ContentAddressMethod ContentAddressMethod::parse(std::string_view caMethod)
 {
     std::string asPrefix = std::string{caMethod} + ":";
     // parseContentAddressMethodPrefix takes its argument by reference
@@ -126,26 +122,55 @@ ContentAddressMethod parseContentAddressMethod(std::string_view caMethod)
     return parseContentAddressMethodPrefix(asPrefixView);
 }
 
-std::optional<ContentAddress> parseContentAddressOpt(std::string_view rawCaOpt)
+std::optional<ContentAddress> ContentAddress::parseOpt(std::string_view rawCaOpt)
 {
-    return rawCaOpt == "" ? std::optional<ContentAddress>() : parseContentAddress(rawCaOpt);
+    return rawCaOpt == ""
+        ? std::nullopt
+        : std::optional { ContentAddress::parse(rawCaOpt) };
 };
 
 std::string renderContentAddress(std::optional<ContentAddress> ca)
 {
-    return ca ? renderContentAddress(*ca) : "";
+    return ca ? ca->render() : "";
 }
 
-Hash getContentAddressHash(const ContentAddress & ca)
+const Hash & ContentAddress::getHash() const
 {
     return std::visit(overloaded {
-        [](const TextHash & th) {
+        [](const TextHash & th) -> auto & {
             return th.hash;
         },
-        [](const FixedOutputHash & fsh) {
+        [](const FixedOutputHash & fsh) -> auto & {
             return fsh.hash;
-        }
-    }, ca);
+        },
+    }, raw);
+}
+
+bool StoreReferences::empty() const
+{
+    return !self && others.empty();
+}
+
+size_t StoreReferences::size() const
+{
+    return (self ? 1 : 0) + others.size();
+}
+
+ContentAddressWithReferences ContentAddressWithReferences::withoutRefs(const ContentAddress & ca) {
+    return std::visit(overloaded {
+        [&](const TextHash & h) -> ContentAddressWithReferences {
+            return TextInfo {
+                .hash = h,
+                .references = {},
+            };
+        },
+        [&](const FixedOutputHash & h) -> ContentAddressWithReferences {
+            return FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = h,
+                .references = {},
+            };
+        },
+    }, ca.raw);
 }
 
 }
diff --git a/src/libstore/content-address.hh b/src/libstore/content-address.hh
index 368a7ec48..2f98950fb 100644
--- a/src/libstore/content-address.hh
+++ b/src/libstore/content-address.hh
@@ -3,12 +3,30 @@
 
 #include <variant>
 #include "hash.hh"
+#include "path.hh"
 #include "comparator.hh"
 
 namespace nix {
 
+/*
+ * Content addressing method
+ */
+
+/* We only have one way to hash text with references, so this is a single-value
+   type, mainly useful with std::variant.
+*/
+
 /**
- * An enumeration of the ways we can serialize file system objects.
+ * The single way we can serialize "text" file system objects.
+ *
+ * Somewhat obscure, used by \ref Derivation derivations and
+ * `builtins.toFile` currently.
+ */
+struct TextHashMethod : std::monostate { };
+
+/**
+ * An enumeration of the main ways we can serialize file system
+ * objects.
  */
 enum struct FileIngestionMethod : uint8_t {
     /**
@@ -22,6 +40,53 @@ enum struct FileIngestionMethod : uint8_t {
     Recursive = true
 };
 
+/**
+ * Compute the prefix to the hash algorithm which indicates how the
+ * files were ingested.
+ */
+std::string makeFileIngestionPrefix(FileIngestionMethod m);
+
+struct FixedOutputHashMethod {
+    FileIngestionMethod fileIngestionMethod;
+    HashType hashType;
+
+    GENERATE_CMP(FixedOutputHashMethod, me->fileIngestionMethod, me->hashType);
+};
+
+/**
+ * An enumeration of all the ways we can serialize file system objects.
+ *
+ * Just the type of a content address. Combine with the hash itself, and
+ * we have a `ContentAddress` as defined below. Combine that, in turn,
+ * with info on references, and we have `ContentAddressWithReferences`,
+ * as defined further below.
+ */
+struct ContentAddressMethod
+{
+    typedef std::variant<
+        TextHashMethod,
+        FixedOutputHashMethod
+    > Raw;
+
+    Raw raw;
+
+    GENERATE_CMP(ContentAddressMethod, me->raw);
+
+    /* The moral equivalent of `using Raw::Raw;` */
+    ContentAddressMethod(auto &&... arg)
+        : raw(std::forward<decltype(arg)>(arg)...)
+    { }
+
+    static ContentAddressMethod parse(std::string_view rawCaMethod);
+
+    std::string render() const;
+};
+
+
+/*
+ * Mini content address
+ */
+
 /**
  * Somewhat obscure, used by \ref Derivation derivations and
  * `builtins.toFile` currently.
@@ -36,7 +101,7 @@ struct TextHash {
 };
 
 /**
- * For path computed by makeFixedOutputPath.
+ * Used by most store objects that are content-addressed.
  */
 struct FixedOutputHash {
     /**
@@ -65,41 +130,96 @@ struct FixedOutputHash {
  * - ‘fixed:<r?>:<ht>:<h>’: For paths computed by
  *   Store::makeFixedOutputPath() / Store::addToStore().
  */
-typedef std::variant<
-    TextHash,
-    FixedOutputHash
-> ContentAddress;
+struct ContentAddress
+{
+    typedef std::variant<
+        TextHash,
+        FixedOutputHash
+    > Raw;
 
-/**
- * Compute the prefix to the hash algorithm which indicates how the
- * files were ingested.
- */
-std::string makeFileIngestionPrefix(const FileIngestionMethod m);
+    Raw raw;
 
-/**
- * Compute the content-addressability assertion (ValidPathInfo::ca) for
- * paths created by Store::makeFixedOutputPath() / Store::addToStore().
- */
-std::string makeFixedOutputCA(FileIngestionMethod method, const Hash & hash);
+    GENERATE_CMP(ContentAddress, me->raw);
 
-std::string renderContentAddress(ContentAddress ca);
+    /* The moral equivalent of `using Raw::Raw;` */
+    ContentAddress(auto &&... arg)
+        : raw(std::forward<decltype(arg)>(arg)...)
+    { }
+
+    /**
+     * Compute the content-addressability assertion (ValidPathInfo::ca) for
+     * paths created by Store::makeFixedOutputPath() / Store::addToStore().
+     */
+    std::string render() const;
+
+    static ContentAddress parse(std::string_view rawCa);
+
+    static std::optional<ContentAddress> parseOpt(std::string_view rawCaOpt);
+
+    const Hash & getHash() const;
+};
 
 std::string renderContentAddress(std::optional<ContentAddress> ca);
 
-ContentAddress parseContentAddress(std::string_view rawCa);
-
-std::optional<ContentAddress> parseContentAddressOpt(std::string_view rawCaOpt);
-
-Hash getContentAddressHash(const ContentAddress & ca);
 
 /*
-  We only have one way to hash text with references, so this is single-value
-  type is only useful in std::variant.
-*/
-struct TextHashMethod { };
-struct FixedOutputHashMethod {
-  FileIngestionMethod fileIngestionMethod;
-  HashType hashType;
+ * Full content address
+ *
+ * See the schema for store paths in store-api.cc
+ */
+
+/**
+ * A set of references to other store objects.
+ *
+ * References to other store objects are tracked with store paths, self
+ * references however are tracked with a boolean.
+ */
+struct StoreReferences {
+    /**
+     * References to other store objects
+     */
+    StorePathSet others;
+
+    /**
+     * Reference to this store object
+     */
+    bool self = false;
+
+    /**
+     * @return true iff no references, i.e. others is empty and self is
+     * false.
+     */
+    bool empty() const;
+
+    /**
+     * Returns the numbers of references, i.e. the size of others + 1
+     * iff self is true.
+     */
+    size_t size() const;
+
+    GENERATE_CMP(StoreReferences, me->self, me->others);
+};
+
+// This matches the additional info that we need for makeTextPath
+struct TextInfo {
+    TextHash hash;
+    /**
+     * References to other store objects only; self references
+     * disallowed
+     */
+    StorePathSet references;
+
+    GENERATE_CMP(TextInfo, me->hash, me->references);
+};
+
+struct FixedOutputInfo {
+    FixedOutputHash hash;
+    /**
+     * References to other store objects or this one.
+     */
+    StoreReferences references;
+
+    GENERATE_CMP(FixedOutputInfo, me->hash, me->references);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -107,13 +227,27 @@ struct FixedOutputHashMethod {
  *
  * A ContentAddress without a Hash.
  */
-typedef std::variant<
-    TextHashMethod,
-    FixedOutputHashMethod
-  > ContentAddressMethod;
+struct ContentAddressWithReferences
+{
+    typedef std::variant<
+        TextInfo,
+        FixedOutputInfo
+    > Raw;
 
-ContentAddressMethod parseContentAddressMethod(std::string_view rawCaMethod);
+    Raw raw;
 
-std::string renderContentAddressMethod(ContentAddressMethod caMethod);
+    GENERATE_CMP(ContentAddressWithReferences, me->raw);
+
+    /* The moral equivalent of `using Raw::Raw;` */
+    ContentAddressWithReferences(auto &&... arg)
+        : raw(std::forward<decltype(arg)>(arg)...)
+    { }
+
+    /**
+     * Create a ContentAddressWithReferences from a mere ContentAddress, by
+     * assuming no references in all cases.
+     */
+    static ContentAddressWithReferences withoutRefs(const ContentAddress &);
+};
 
 }
diff --git a/src/libstore/daemon.cc b/src/libstore/daemon.cc
index 63898f8dc..ed2d15c10 100644
--- a/src/libstore/daemon.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/daemon.cc
@@ -401,21 +401,21 @@ static void performOp(TunnelLogger * logger, ref<Store> store,
             logger->startWork();
             auto pathInfo = [&]() {
                 // NB: FramedSource must be out of scope before logger->stopWork();
-                ContentAddressMethod contentAddressMethod = parseContentAddressMethod(camStr);
+                ContentAddressMethod contentAddressMethod = ContentAddressMethod::parse(camStr);
                 FramedSource source(from);
                 // TODO this is essentially RemoteStore::addCAToStore. Move it up to Store.
                 return std::visit(overloaded {
-                    [&](TextHashMethod &) {
+                    [&](const TextHashMethod &) {
                         // We could stream this by changing Store
                         std::string contents = source.drain();
                         auto path = store->addTextToStore(name, contents, refs, repair);
                         return store->queryPathInfo(path);
                     },
-                    [&](FixedOutputHashMethod & fohm) {
+                    [&](const FixedOutputHashMethod & fohm) {
                         auto path = store->addToStoreFromDump(source, name, fohm.fileIngestionMethod, fohm.hashType, repair, refs);
                         return store->queryPathInfo(path);
                     },
-                }, contentAddressMethod);
+                }, contentAddressMethod.raw);
             }();
             logger->stopWork();
 
@@ -880,7 +880,7 @@ static void performOp(TunnelLogger * logger, ref<Store> store,
         info.references = worker_proto::read(*store, from, Phantom<StorePathSet> {});
         from >> info.registrationTime >> info.narSize >> info.ultimate;
         info.sigs = readStrings<StringSet>(from);
-        info.ca = parseContentAddressOpt(readString(from));
+        info.ca = ContentAddress::parseOpt(readString(from));
         from >> repair >> dontCheckSigs;
         if (!trusted && dontCheckSigs)
             dontCheckSigs = false;
diff --git a/src/libstore/derivations.cc b/src/libstore/derivations.cc
index 7eb5cd275..0de36504b 100644
--- a/src/libstore/derivations.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/derivations.cc
@@ -36,8 +36,8 @@ std::optional<StorePath> DerivationOutput::path(const Store & store, std::string
 StorePath DerivationOutput::CAFixed::path(const Store & store, std::string_view drvName, std::string_view outputName) const
 {
     return store.makeFixedOutputPath(
-        hash.method, hash.hash,
-        outputPathName(drvName, outputName));
+        outputPathName(drvName, outputName),
+        { hash, {} });
 }
 
 
@@ -942,7 +942,7 @@ void Derivation::checkInvariants(Store & store, const StorePath & drvPath) const
                 envHasRightPath(doia.path, i.first);
             },
             [&](const DerivationOutput::CAFixed & dof) {
-                StorePath path = store.makeFixedOutputPath(dof.hash.method, dof.hash.hash, drvName);
+                StorePath path = store.makeFixedOutputPath(drvName, { dof.hash, {} });
                 envHasRightPath(path, i.first);
             },
             [&](const DerivationOutput::CAFloating &) {
diff --git a/src/libstore/legacy-ssh-store.cc b/src/libstore/legacy-ssh-store.cc
index d2ddbbe5f..c3cb3032a 100644
--- a/src/libstore/legacy-ssh-store.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/legacy-ssh-store.cc
@@ -156,7 +156,7 @@ struct LegacySSHStore : public virtual LegacySSHStoreConfig, public virtual Stor
                     throw Error("NAR hash is now mandatory");
                 info->narHash = Hash::parseAnyPrefixed(s);
             }
-            info->ca = parseContentAddressOpt(readString(conn->from));
+            info->ca = ContentAddress::parseOpt(readString(conn->from));
             info->sigs = readStrings<StringSet>(conn->from);
 
             auto s = readString(conn->from);
diff --git a/src/libstore/local-store.cc b/src/libstore/local-store.cc
index c3be1b461..7fb312c37 100644
--- a/src/libstore/local-store.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/local-store.cc
@@ -710,6 +710,7 @@ void canonicalisePathMetaData(const Path & path,
     canonicalisePathMetaData(path, uidRange, inodesSeen);
 }
 
+
 void LocalStore::registerDrvOutput(const Realisation & info, CheckSigsFlag checkSigs)
 {
     experimentalFeatureSettings.require(Xp::CaDerivations);
@@ -888,7 +889,7 @@ std::shared_ptr<const ValidPathInfo> LocalStore::queryPathInfoInternal(State & s
     if (s) info->sigs = tokenizeString<StringSet>(s, " ");
 
     s = (const char *) sqlite3_column_text(state.stmts->QueryPathInfo, 7);
-    if (s) info->ca = parseContentAddressOpt(s);
+    if (s) info->ca = ContentAddress::parseOpt(s);
 
     /* Get the references. */
     auto useQueryReferences(state.stmts->QueryReferences.use()(info->id));
@@ -1221,7 +1222,7 @@ void LocalStore::addToStore(const ValidPathInfo & info, Source & source,
                     printStorePath(info.path), info.narSize, hashResult.second);
 
             if (info.ca) {
-                if (auto foHash = std::get_if<FixedOutputHash>(&*info.ca)) {
+                if (auto foHash = std::get_if<FixedOutputHash>(&info.ca->raw)) {
                     auto actualFoHash = hashCAPath(
                         foHash->method,
                         foHash->hash.type,
@@ -1234,7 +1235,7 @@ void LocalStore::addToStore(const ValidPathInfo & info, Source & source,
                             actualFoHash.hash.to_string(Base32, true));
                     }
                 }
-                if (auto textHash = std::get_if<TextHash>(&*info.ca)) {
+                if (auto textHash = std::get_if<TextHash>(&info.ca->raw)) {
                     auto actualTextHash = hashString(htSHA256, readFile(realPath));
                     if (textHash->hash != actualTextHash) {
                         throw Error("ca hash mismatch importing path '%s';\n  specified: %s\n  got:       %s",
@@ -1320,7 +1321,19 @@ StorePath LocalStore::addToStoreFromDump(Source & source0, std::string_view name
 
     auto [hash, size] = hashSink->finish();
 
-    auto dstPath = makeFixedOutputPath(method, hash, name, references);
+    ContentAddressWithReferences desc = FixedOutputInfo {
+        .hash = {
+            .method = method,
+            .hash = hash,
+        },
+        .references = {
+            .others = references,
+            // caller is not capable of creating a self-reference, because this is content-addressed without modulus
+            .self = false,
+        },
+    };
+
+    auto dstPath = makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(name, desc);
 
     addTempRoot(dstPath);
 
@@ -1340,7 +1353,7 @@ StorePath LocalStore::addToStoreFromDump(Source & source0, std::string_view name
             autoGC();
 
             if (inMemory) {
-                 StringSource dumpSource { dump };
+                StringSource dumpSource { dump };
                 /* Restore from the NAR in memory. */
                 if (method == FileIngestionMethod::Recursive)
                     restorePath(realPath, dumpSource);
@@ -1364,10 +1377,13 @@ StorePath LocalStore::addToStoreFromDump(Source & source0, std::string_view name
 
             optimisePath(realPath, repair);
 
-            ValidPathInfo info { dstPath, narHash.first };
+            ValidPathInfo info {
+                *this,
+                name,
+                std::move(desc),
+                narHash.first
+            };
             info.narSize = narHash.second;
-            info.references = references;
-            info.ca = FixedOutputHash { .method = method, .hash = hash };
             registerValidPath(info);
         }
 
@@ -1384,7 +1400,10 @@ StorePath LocalStore::addTextToStore(
     const StorePathSet & references, RepairFlag repair)
 {
     auto hash = hashString(htSHA256, s);
-    auto dstPath = makeTextPath(name, hash, references);
+    auto dstPath = makeTextPath(name, TextInfo {
+        { .hash = hash },
+        references,
+    });
 
     addTempRoot(dstPath);
 
diff --git a/src/libstore/make-content-addressed.cc b/src/libstore/make-content-addressed.cc
index 64d172918..53fe04704 100644
--- a/src/libstore/make-content-addressed.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/make-content-addressed.cc
@@ -27,18 +27,17 @@ std::map<StorePath, StorePath> makeContentAddressed(
 
         StringMap rewrites;
 
-        StorePathSet references;
-        bool hasSelfReference = false;
+        StoreReferences refs;
         for (auto & ref : oldInfo->references) {
             if (ref == path)
-                hasSelfReference = true;
+                refs.self = true;
             else {
                 auto i = remappings.find(ref);
                 auto replacement = i != remappings.end() ? i->second : ref;
                 // FIXME: warn about unremapped paths?
                 if (replacement != ref)
                     rewrites.insert_or_assign(srcStore.printStorePath(ref), srcStore.printStorePath(replacement));
-                references.insert(std::move(replacement));
+                refs.others.insert(std::move(replacement));
             }
         }
 
@@ -49,24 +48,28 @@ std::map<StorePath, StorePath> makeContentAddressed(
 
         auto narModuloHash = hashModuloSink.finish().first;
 
-        auto dstPath = dstStore.makeFixedOutputPath(
-            FileIngestionMethod::Recursive, narModuloHash, path.name(), references, hasSelfReference);
+        ValidPathInfo info {
+            dstStore,
+            path.name(),
+            FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = FileIngestionMethod::Recursive,
+                    .hash = narModuloHash,
+                },
+                .references = std::move(refs),
+            },
+            Hash::dummy,
+        };
 
-        printInfo("rewriting '%s' to '%s'", pathS, srcStore.printStorePath(dstPath));
+        printInfo("rewriting '%s' to '%s'", pathS, dstStore.printStorePath(info.path));
 
         StringSink sink2;
-        RewritingSink rsink2(oldHashPart, std::string(dstPath.hashPart()), sink2);
+        RewritingSink rsink2(oldHashPart, std::string(info.path.hashPart()), sink2);
         rsink2(sink.s);
         rsink2.flush();
 
-        ValidPathInfo info { dstPath, hashString(htSHA256, sink2.s) };
-        info.references = std::move(references);
-        if (hasSelfReference) info.references.insert(info.path);
+        info.narHash = hashString(htSHA256, sink2.s);
         info.narSize = sink.s.size();
-        info.ca = FixedOutputHash {
-            .method = FileIngestionMethod::Recursive,
-            .hash = narModuloHash,
-        };
 
         StringSource source(sink2.s);
         dstStore.addToStore(info, source);
diff --git a/src/libstore/nar-info-disk-cache.cc b/src/libstore/nar-info-disk-cache.cc
index 2645f468b..c7176d30f 100644
--- a/src/libstore/nar-info-disk-cache.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/nar-info-disk-cache.cc
@@ -273,7 +273,7 @@ public:
                 narInfo->deriver = StorePath(queryNAR.getStr(9));
             for (auto & sig : tokenizeString<Strings>(queryNAR.getStr(10), " "))
                 narInfo->sigs.insert(sig);
-            narInfo->ca = parseContentAddressOpt(queryNAR.getStr(11));
+            narInfo->ca = ContentAddress::parseOpt(queryNAR.getStr(11));
 
             return {oValid, narInfo};
         });
diff --git a/src/libstore/nar-info.cc b/src/libstore/nar-info.cc
index 071d8355e..274cd861c 100644
--- a/src/libstore/nar-info.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/nar-info.cc
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ NarInfo::NarInfo(const Store & store, const std::string & s, const std::string &
         else if (name == "CA") {
             if (ca) throw corrupt();
             // FIXME: allow blank ca or require skipping field?
-            ca = parseContentAddressOpt(value);
+            ca = ContentAddress::parseOpt(value);
         }
 
         pos = eol + 1;
diff --git a/src/libstore/nar-info.hh b/src/libstore/nar-info.hh
index 3cae8e659..5dbdafac3 100644
--- a/src/libstore/nar-info.hh
+++ b/src/libstore/nar-info.hh
@@ -17,6 +17,9 @@ struct NarInfo : ValidPathInfo
     uint64_t fileSize = 0;
 
     NarInfo() = delete;
+    NarInfo(const Store & store, std::string && name, ContentAddressWithReferences && ca, Hash narHash)
+        : ValidPathInfo(store, std::move(name), std::move(ca), narHash)
+    { }
     NarInfo(StorePath && path, Hash narHash) : ValidPathInfo(std::move(path), narHash) { }
     NarInfo(const ValidPathInfo & info) : ValidPathInfo(info) { }
     NarInfo(const Store & store, const std::string & s, const std::string & whence);
diff --git a/src/libstore/path-info.cc b/src/libstore/path-info.cc
index bd55a9d06..e60d7abe0 100644
--- a/src/libstore/path-info.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/path-info.cc
@@ -21,25 +21,45 @@ void ValidPathInfo::sign(const Store & store, const SecretKey & secretKey)
     sigs.insert(secretKey.signDetached(fingerprint(store)));
 }
 
-
-bool ValidPathInfo::isContentAddressed(const Store & store) const
+std::optional<ContentAddressWithReferences> ValidPathInfo::contentAddressWithReferences() const
 {
-    if (! ca) return false;
+    if (! ca)
+        return std::nullopt;
 
-    auto caPath = std::visit(overloaded {
-        [&](const TextHash & th) {
-            return store.makeTextPath(path.name(), th.hash, references);
+    return std::visit(overloaded {
+        [&](const TextHash & th) -> ContentAddressWithReferences {
+            assert(references.count(path) == 0);
+            return TextInfo {
+                .hash = th,
+                .references = references,
+            };
         },
-        [&](const FixedOutputHash & fsh) {
+        [&](const FixedOutputHash & foh) -> ContentAddressWithReferences {
             auto refs = references;
             bool hasSelfReference = false;
             if (refs.count(path)) {
                 hasSelfReference = true;
                 refs.erase(path);
             }
-            return store.makeFixedOutputPath(fsh.method, fsh.hash, path.name(), refs, hasSelfReference);
-        }
-    }, *ca);
+            return FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = foh,
+                .references = {
+                    .others = std::move(refs),
+                    .self = hasSelfReference,
+                },
+            };
+        },
+    }, ca->raw);
+}
+
+bool ValidPathInfo::isContentAddressed(const Store & store) const
+{
+    auto fullCaOpt = contentAddressWithReferences();
+
+    if (! fullCaOpt)
+        return false;
+
+    auto caPath = store.makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(path.name(), *fullCaOpt);
 
     bool res = caPath == path;
 
@@ -77,6 +97,29 @@ Strings ValidPathInfo::shortRefs() const
 }
 
 
+ValidPathInfo::ValidPathInfo(
+    const Store & store,
+    std::string_view name,
+    ContentAddressWithReferences && ca,
+    Hash narHash)
+      : path(store.makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(name, ca))
+      , narHash(narHash)
+{
+    std::visit(overloaded {
+        [this](TextInfo && ti) {
+            this->references = std::move(ti.references);
+            this->ca = std::move((TextHash &&) ti);
+        },
+        [this](FixedOutputInfo && foi) {
+            this->references = std::move(foi.references.others);
+            if (foi.references.self)
+                this->references.insert(path);
+            this->ca = std::move((FixedOutputHash &&) foi);
+        },
+    }, std::move(ca).raw);
+}
+
+
 ValidPathInfo ValidPathInfo::read(Source & source, const Store & store, unsigned int format)
 {
     return read(source, store, format, store.parseStorePath(readString(source)));
@@ -93,7 +136,7 @@ ValidPathInfo ValidPathInfo::read(Source & source, const Store & store, unsigned
     if (format >= 16) {
         source >> info.ultimate;
         info.sigs = readStrings<StringSet>(source);
-        info.ca = parseContentAddressOpt(readString(source));
+        info.ca = ContentAddress::parseOpt(readString(source));
     }
     return info;
 }
diff --git a/src/libstore/path-info.hh b/src/libstore/path-info.hh
index 9af1309a0..221523622 100644
--- a/src/libstore/path-info.hh
+++ b/src/libstore/path-info.hh
@@ -92,6 +92,13 @@ struct ValidPathInfo
 
     void sign(const Store & store, const SecretKey & secretKey);
 
+	/**
+	 * @return The `ContentAddressWithReferences` that determines the
+	 * store path for a content-addressed store object, `std::nullopt`
+	 * for an input-addressed store object.
+	 */
+    std::optional<ContentAddressWithReferences> contentAddressWithReferences() const;
+
     /**
      * @return true iff the path is verifiably content-addressed.
      */
@@ -118,6 +125,9 @@ struct ValidPathInfo
     ValidPathInfo(StorePath && path, Hash narHash) : path(std::move(path)), narHash(narHash) { };
     ValidPathInfo(const StorePath & path, Hash narHash) : path(path), narHash(narHash) { };
 
+    ValidPathInfo(const Store & store,
+        std::string_view name, ContentAddressWithReferences && ca, Hash narHash);
+
     virtual ~ValidPathInfo() { }
 
     static ValidPathInfo read(Source & source, const Store & store, unsigned int format);
diff --git a/src/libstore/remote-store.cc b/src/libstore/remote-store.cc
index b862902d1..d0ce0bce9 100644
--- a/src/libstore/remote-store.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/remote-store.cc
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ void write(const Store & store, Sink & out, const std::optional<TrustedFlag> & o
 
 ContentAddress read(const Store & store, Source & from, Phantom<ContentAddress> _)
 {
-    return parseContentAddress(readString(from));
+    return ContentAddress::parse(readString(from));
 }
 
 void write(const Store & store, Sink & out, const ContentAddress & ca)
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ void write(const Store & store, Sink & out, const std::optional<StorePath> & sto
 
 std::optional<ContentAddress> read(const Store & store, Source & from, Phantom<std::optional<ContentAddress>> _)
 {
-    return parseContentAddressOpt(readString(from));
+    return ContentAddress::parseOpt(readString(from));
 }
 
 void write(const Store & store, Sink & out, const std::optional<ContentAddress> & caOpt)
@@ -586,7 +586,7 @@ ref<const ValidPathInfo> RemoteStore::addCAToStore(
         conn->to
             << wopAddToStore
             << name
-            << renderContentAddressMethod(caMethod);
+            << caMethod.render();
         worker_proto::write(*this, conn->to, references);
         conn->to << repair;
 
@@ -644,7 +644,7 @@ ref<const ValidPathInfo> RemoteStore::addCAToStore(
                 }
 
             }
-        }, caMethod);
+        }, caMethod.raw);
         auto path = parseStorePath(readString(conn->from));
         // Release our connection to prevent a deadlock in queryPathInfo().
         conn_.reset();
diff --git a/src/libstore/store-api.cc b/src/libstore/store-api.cc
index 8fc3ed46a..5bee1af9f 100644
--- a/src/libstore/store-api.cc
+++ b/src/libstore/store-api.cc
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@
 #include "nar-info-disk-cache.hh"
 #include "thread-pool.hh"
 #include "url.hh"
+#include "references.hh"
 #include "archive.hh"
 #include "callback.hh"
 #include "remote-store.hh"
@@ -98,10 +99,12 @@ StorePath Store::followLinksToStorePath(std::string_view path) const
        silly, but it's done that way for compatibility).  <id> is the
        name of the output (usually, "out").
 
-   <h2> = base-16 representation of a SHA-256 hash of:
+   <h2> = base-16 representation of a SHA-256 hash of <s2>
+
+   <s2> =
      if <type> = "text:...":
        the string written to the resulting store path
-     if <type> = "source":
+     if <type> = "source:...":
        the serialisation of the path from which this store path is
        copied, as returned by hashPath()
      if <type> = "output:<id>":
@@ -162,63 +165,63 @@ StorePath Store::makeOutputPath(std::string_view id,
 }
 
 
+/* Stuff the references (if any) into the type.  This is a bit
+   hacky, but we can't put them in, say, <s2> (per the grammar above)
+   since that would be ambiguous. */
 static std::string makeType(
     const Store & store,
     std::string && type,
-    const StorePathSet & references,
-    bool hasSelfReference = false)
+    const StoreReferences & references)
 {
-    for (auto & i : references) {
+    for (auto & i : references.others) {
         type += ":";
         type += store.printStorePath(i);
     }
-    if (hasSelfReference) type += ":self";
+    if (references.self) type += ":self";
     return std::move(type);
 }
 
 
-StorePath Store::makeFixedOutputPath(
-    FileIngestionMethod method,
-    const Hash & hash,
-    std::string_view name,
-    const StorePathSet & references,
-    bool hasSelfReference) const
+StorePath Store::makeFixedOutputPath(std::string_view name, const FixedOutputInfo & info) const
 {
-    if (hash.type == htSHA256 && method == FileIngestionMethod::Recursive) {
-        return makeStorePath(makeType(*this, "source", references, hasSelfReference), hash, name);
+    if (info.hash.hash.type == htSHA256 && info.hash.method == FileIngestionMethod::Recursive) {
+        return makeStorePath(makeType(*this, "source", info.references), info.hash.hash, name);
     } else {
-        assert(references.empty());
+        assert(info.references.size() == 0);
         return makeStorePath("output:out",
             hashString(htSHA256,
                 "fixed:out:"
-                + makeFileIngestionPrefix(method)
-                + hash.to_string(Base16, true) + ":"),
+                + makeFileIngestionPrefix(info.hash.method)
+                + info.hash.hash.to_string(Base16, true) + ":"),
             name);
     }
 }
 
-StorePath Store::makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(std::string_view name, ContentAddress ca,
-    const StorePathSet & references, bool hasSelfReference) const
+
+StorePath Store::makeTextPath(std::string_view name, const TextInfo & info) const
+{
+    assert(info.hash.hash.type == htSHA256);
+    return makeStorePath(
+        makeType(*this, "text", StoreReferences {
+            .others = info.references,
+            .self = false,
+        }),
+        info.hash.hash,
+        name);
+}
+
+
+StorePath Store::makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(std::string_view name, const ContentAddressWithReferences & ca) const
 {
     // New template
     return std::visit(overloaded {
-        [&](const TextHash & th) {
-            return makeTextPath(name, th.hash, references);
+        [&](const TextInfo & ti) {
+            return makeTextPath(name, ti);
         },
-        [&](const FixedOutputHash & fsh) {
-            return makeFixedOutputPath(fsh.method, fsh.hash, name, references, hasSelfReference);
+        [&](const FixedOutputInfo & foi) {
+            return makeFixedOutputPath(name, foi);
         }
-    }, ca);
-}
-
-StorePath Store::makeTextPath(std::string_view name, const Hash & hash,
-    const StorePathSet & references) const
-{
-    assert(hash.type == htSHA256);
-    /* Stuff the references (if any) into the type.  This is a bit
-       hacky, but we can't put them in `s' since that would be
-       ambiguous. */
-    return makeStorePath(makeType(*this, "text", references), hash, name);
+    }, ca.raw);
 }
 
 
@@ -228,7 +231,14 @@ std::pair<StorePath, Hash> Store::computeStorePathForPath(std::string_view name,
     Hash h = method == FileIngestionMethod::Recursive
         ? hashPath(hashAlgo, srcPath, filter).first
         : hashFile(hashAlgo, srcPath);
-    return std::make_pair(makeFixedOutputPath(method, h, name), h);
+    FixedOutputInfo caInfo {
+        .hash = {
+            .method = method,
+            .hash = h,
+        },
+        .references = {},
+    };
+    return std::make_pair(makeFixedOutputPath(name, caInfo), h);
 }
 
 
@@ -237,7 +247,10 @@ StorePath Store::computeStorePathForText(
     std::string_view s,
     const StorePathSet & references) const
 {
-    return makeTextPath(name, hashString(htSHA256, s), references);
+    return makeTextPath(name, TextInfo {
+        { .hash = hashString(htSHA256, s) },
+        references,
+    });
 }
 
 
@@ -425,11 +438,18 @@ ValidPathInfo Store::addToStoreSlow(std::string_view name, const Path & srcPath,
         throw Error("hash mismatch for '%s'", srcPath);
 
     ValidPathInfo info {
-        makeFixedOutputPath(method, hash, name),
+        *this,
+        name,
+        FixedOutputInfo {
+            .hash = {
+                .method = method,
+                .hash = hash,
+            },
+            .references = {},
+        },
         narHash,
     };
     info.narSize = narSize;
-    info.ca = FixedOutputHash { .method = method, .hash = hash };
 
     if (!isValidPath(info.path)) {
         auto source = sinkToSource([&](Sink & scratchpadSink) {
@@ -521,7 +541,9 @@ void Store::querySubstitutablePathInfos(const StorePathCAMap & paths, Substituta
 
             // Recompute store path so that we can use a different store root.
             if (path.second) {
-                subPath = makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(path.first.name(), *path.second);
+                subPath = makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(
+                    path.first.name(),
+                    ContentAddressWithReferences::withoutRefs(*path.second));
                 if (sub->storeDir == storeDir)
                     assert(subPath == path.first);
                 if (subPath != path.first)
@@ -538,10 +560,11 @@ void Store::querySubstitutablePathInfos(const StorePathCAMap & paths, Substituta
                 auto narInfo = std::dynamic_pointer_cast<const NarInfo>(
                     std::shared_ptr<const ValidPathInfo>(info));
                 infos.insert_or_assign(path.first, SubstitutablePathInfo{
-                    info->deriver,
-                    info->references,
-                    narInfo ? narInfo->fileSize : 0,
-                    info->narSize});
+                    .deriver = info->deriver,
+                    .references = info->references,
+                    .downloadSize = narInfo ? narInfo->fileSize : 0,
+                    .narSize = info->narSize,
+                });
             } catch (InvalidPath &) {
             } catch (SubstituterDisabled &) {
             } catch (Error & e) {
@@ -1025,7 +1048,9 @@ void copyStorePath(
     // recompute store path on the chance dstStore does it differently
     if (info->ca && info->references.empty()) {
         auto info2 = make_ref<ValidPathInfo>(*info);
-        info2->path = dstStore.makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(info->path.name(), *info->ca);
+        info2->path = dstStore.makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(
+            info->path.name(),
+            info->contentAddressWithReferences().value());
         if (dstStore.storeDir == srcStore.storeDir)
             assert(info->path == info2->path);
         info = info2;
@@ -1137,7 +1162,9 @@ std::map<StorePath, StorePath> copyPaths(
         auto storePathForSrc = currentPathInfo.path;
         auto storePathForDst = storePathForSrc;
         if (currentPathInfo.ca && currentPathInfo.references.empty()) {
-            storePathForDst = dstStore.makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(storePathForSrc.name(), *currentPathInfo.ca);
+            storePathForDst = dstStore.makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(
+                currentPathInfo.path.name(),
+                currentPathInfo.contentAddressWithReferences().value());
             if (dstStore.storeDir == srcStore.storeDir)
                 assert(storePathForDst == storePathForSrc);
             if (storePathForDst != storePathForSrc)
diff --git a/src/libstore/store-api.hh b/src/libstore/store-api.hh
index 5bee272bf..74f50a00d 100644
--- a/src/libstore/store-api.hh
+++ b/src/libstore/store-api.hh
@@ -268,17 +268,11 @@ public:
     StorePath makeOutputPath(std::string_view id,
         const Hash & hash, std::string_view name) const;
 
-    StorePath makeFixedOutputPath(FileIngestionMethod method,
-        const Hash & hash, std::string_view name,
-        const StorePathSet & references = {},
-        bool hasSelfReference = false) const;
+    StorePath makeFixedOutputPath(std::string_view name, const FixedOutputInfo & info) const;
 
-    StorePath makeTextPath(std::string_view name, const Hash & hash,
-        const StorePathSet & references = {}) const;
+    StorePath makeTextPath(std::string_view name, const TextInfo & info) const;
 
-    StorePath makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(std::string_view name, ContentAddress ca,
-        const StorePathSet & references = {},
-        bool hasSelfReference = false) const;
+    StorePath makeFixedOutputPathFromCA(std::string_view name, const ContentAddressWithReferences & ca) const;
 
     /**
      * Preparatory part of addToStore().
diff --git a/src/nix-store/nix-store.cc b/src/nix-store/nix-store.cc
index 7035e6a7b..03fc93962 100644
--- a/src/nix-store/nix-store.cc
+++ b/src/nix-store/nix-store.cc
@@ -204,10 +204,10 @@ static void opAddFixed(Strings opFlags, Strings opArgs)
 /* Hack to support caching in `nix-prefetch-url'. */
 static void opPrintFixedPath(Strings opFlags, Strings opArgs)
 {
-    auto recursive = FileIngestionMethod::Flat;
+    auto method = FileIngestionMethod::Flat;
 
     for (auto i : opFlags)
-        if (i == "--recursive") recursive = FileIngestionMethod::Recursive;
+        if (i == "--recursive") method = FileIngestionMethod::Recursive;
         else throw UsageError("unknown flag '%1%'", i);
 
     if (opArgs.size() != 3)
@@ -218,7 +218,13 @@ static void opPrintFixedPath(Strings opFlags, Strings opArgs)
     std::string hash = *i++;
     std::string name = *i++;
 
-    cout << fmt("%s\n", store->printStorePath(store->makeFixedOutputPath(recursive, Hash::parseAny(hash, hashAlgo), name)));
+    cout << fmt("%s\n", store->printStorePath(store->makeFixedOutputPath(name, FixedOutputInfo {
+        .hash = {
+            .method = method,
+            .hash = Hash::parseAny(hash, hashAlgo),
+        },
+        .references = {},
+    })));
 }
 
 
@@ -964,7 +970,7 @@ static void opServe(Strings opFlags, Strings opArgs)
                 info.references = worker_proto::read(*store, in, Phantom<StorePathSet> {});
                 in >> info.registrationTime >> info.narSize >> info.ultimate;
                 info.sigs = readStrings<StringSet>(in);
-                info.ca = parseContentAddressOpt(readString(in));
+                info.ca = ContentAddress::parseOpt(readString(in));
 
                 if (info.narSize == 0)
                     throw Error("narInfo is too old and missing the narSize field");
diff --git a/src/nix/add-to-store.cc b/src/nix/add-to-store.cc
index 5168413d2..16e48a39b 100644
--- a/src/nix/add-to-store.cc
+++ b/src/nix/add-to-store.cc
@@ -42,14 +42,18 @@ struct CmdAddToStore : MixDryRun, StoreCommand
         }
 
         ValidPathInfo info {
-            store->makeFixedOutputPath(ingestionMethod, hash, *namePart),
+            *store,
+            std::move(*namePart),
+            FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = std::move(ingestionMethod),
+                    .hash = std::move(hash),
+                },
+                .references = {},
+            },
             narHash,
         };
         info.narSize = sink.s.size();
-        info.ca = std::optional { FixedOutputHash {
-            .method = ingestionMethod,
-            .hash = hash,
-        } };
 
         if (!dryRun) {
             auto source = StringSource(sink.s);
diff --git a/src/nix/prefetch.cc b/src/nix/prefetch.cc
index 51c8a3319..56e7bbb6e 100644
--- a/src/nix/prefetch.cc
+++ b/src/nix/prefetch.cc
@@ -67,7 +67,13 @@ std::tuple<StorePath, Hash> prefetchFile(
        the store. */
     if (expectedHash) {
         hashType = expectedHash->type;
-        storePath = store->makeFixedOutputPath(ingestionMethod, *expectedHash, *name);
+        storePath = store->makeFixedOutputPath(*name, FixedOutputInfo {
+            .hash = {
+                .method = ingestionMethod,
+                .hash = *expectedHash,
+            },
+            .references = {},
+        });
         if (store->isValidPath(*storePath))
             hash = expectedHash;
         else
@@ -118,7 +124,7 @@ std::tuple<StorePath, Hash> prefetchFile(
         auto info = store->addToStoreSlow(*name, tmpFile, ingestionMethod, hashType, expectedHash);
         storePath = info.path;
         assert(info.ca);
-        hash = getContentAddressHash(*info.ca);
+        hash = info.ca->getHash();
     }
 
     return {storePath.value(), hash.value()};
diff --git a/src/nix/profile.cc b/src/nix/profile.cc
index 88d4a3ce5..fd63b3519 100644
--- a/src/nix/profile.cc
+++ b/src/nix/profile.cc
@@ -200,12 +200,22 @@ struct ProfileManifest
         auto narHash = hashString(htSHA256, sink.s);
 
         ValidPathInfo info {
-            store->makeFixedOutputPath(FileIngestionMethod::Recursive, narHash, "profile", references),
+            *store,
+            "profile",
+            FixedOutputInfo {
+                .hash = {
+                    .method = FileIngestionMethod::Recursive,
+                    .hash = narHash,
+                },
+                .references = {
+                    .others = std::move(references),
+                    // profiles never refer to themselves
+                    .self = false,
+                },
+            },
             narHash,
         };
-        info.references = std::move(references);
         info.narSize = sink.s.size();
-        info.ca = FixedOutputHash { .method = FileIngestionMethod::Recursive, .hash = info.narHash };
 
         StringSource source(sink.s);
         store->addToStore(info, source);